Family & Corrections Network

THE NORTH AMERICAN CONFERENCE ON FATHERS BEHIND BARS & ON THE STREET

Fathers Returning Home From Prison
- A Solution-focused Approach For Restoring Marital Relationships

by G. Stan Meloy, Ph.D.

Introduction
In 1997 I was in private practice as a family therapist in Michigan, and some of my clients were men who had just been released from prison and then court-ordered into individual counseling as a condition of their probation. Most were fathers who had either been divorced while they were doing time, or complained loudly about their wives being too demanding and unsympathetic after they came home. Reintegration is often an evolving and tentative process, and so I started inviting wives into therapy in an effort to work through marital problems and to negotiate or restore family roles and rules.

The problem with individual counseling for probationers is that it doesn't allow family participation and assessment, and without that men can?t fully appreciate the hardships they've imposed on their families, and their wives and children can't "get over it" until he's accepted responsibility, sought forgiveness, and made amends.

Men returning from prison are uniquely challenged to recover from their prison experiences on one hand, while quickly adapting to their former roles as husbands and fathers on the other. Their need to be anchored into something more meaningful and reliable than themselves is great. In fact, family relationships that become burdened and disorganized by reintegration can exacerbate existing problems and discourage re-engagement. Worse still, fathers may start feeling apathetic about the decisions they make regarding their families, substance abuse recovery, keeping a job, probation requirements and so on.

I wondered about the effects of family counseling vs. individual counseling for this population, and so I set up my dissertation research to determine if differences existed between the two. I wanted to identify and examine the most persistent obstacles impeding the reintegration efforts of fathers returning home from prison, and to help men resume their roles as good husbands and reliable fathers. This was an attempt to investigate the benefits of family counseling as a more responsible and productive strategy than individual counseling.

My study compared pre- and post-test differences on the FACES II Instrument between two groups of 10 fathers living at a 90-day halfway house in Lansing, Michigan. The Comparison Group received individual counseling without their wives, while the Experimental Group received family counseling with their wives.

Six of the ten men in the Comparison Group grew up without fathers or male role models; four were African-American, six were Caucasian, and six had children from previous relationships. All were non-violent offenders between the ages of 22 and 38, had been with their wives/girlfriends for at least three years, and reported histories of substance abuse, unemployment, and multiple jail terms. Eight of the ten men in the Experimental Group grew up without fathers or male role models; five were African-American, five were Caucasian, and five had children from previous relationships. All were non-violent offenders between the ages of 29 and 42, had been with their wives/girlfriends for at least three years, and reported histories of substance abuse, unemployment, and multiple jail terms.

FACES II uses a 5-point Likert scale to assess 30 questions dealing with perceptions of Adaptability and Cohesion. Adaptability was defined by leadership, control, discipline, rules and roles; cohesion by emotional bonding, supportiveness, boundaries, and loyalties.

To further measure the effects of family counseling, the Experimental Group participants were also pre- and post-tested with Dr. David Olson's ENRICH Instrument. This is a 165-item questionnaire that evaluates relationship strengths and weaknesses along ten categories: Personality Issues, Communications, Conflict Resolution, Financial Management, Leisure Activities, Sexual Relationship, Parenting, Family/Friends, Role Relationships, and Spiritual Beliefs.

In addition, I developed and tested an 8-session counseling model based on Dr. Olson's 6-session ENRICH curriculum. None of the couples in my study had ever been in family counseling before and the problems they had to deal with required more than 6 sessions.

The model I developed from Dr. Olson's model was much more directive and confrontational - especially in terms of substance abuse, problem-solving, and communications. I amended his curriculum to: (1) provide 2 intake sessions and 8 sessions of therapy, (2) target and emphasize different goals, and (3) treat the most threatening and frequently cited problems with greater scrutiny.

I'm going to elaborate on how imprisonment and reintegration affects husbands, wives, and their children, and I'm going to explain the family counseling model I used, along with pre- and post-test outcomes from the ENRICH Instrument.

"The stigma accompanying incarceration affects the whole family, leading some members to distance themselves overtly or covertly from the offender" (Carlson & Cervera, 1992, p.22). Most inmate fathers lack an accurate sense of the financial, emotional, and physical burdens they've imposed on their wives and children, and most struggled to retain an acumen of their former roles as husbands and fathers while they were in prison. The level of influence fathers seek, however, is rarely achieved because their wives often excluded them from the decision-making process by withholding or diminishing family problems. And while his family may have changed dramatically during his absence, his life may not have changed since the day he lost his freedom.

One father said: "You know time has stopped for me. I still think like I did when I went in and I'm trying to make up for all the time that I lost but I can't. I also have this bitterness, this inner rage that I don't know how to let go of. I've been treated as less than human for so long that I no longer know what to expect or what is expected of me" (Shaw, 1992, p.70).

Justin Brooks is a professor at Cooley Law School and he wrote: "When inmates are de-socialized from the life with their families and socialized to the life of an inmate, they are more likely to end up back in prison. Simply put, the behavior patterns one learns in a cage teach one to survive in a cage, not how to live fruitfully in society as a whole" (Brooks, 1994, p.277).

The role of the prisoner's wife had likely been arduous and unfamiliar during incarceration, and many report feeling overwhelmed by the competing demands of work and parenting. Beyond dealing with her own losses of affection, emotional support, and sexual fulfillment, wives were also pressed into the role of a single parent. So it's not surprising that most wives and their children report feeling punished, too. They often describe feelings of loneliness, boredom, and helplessness, and this sense of also being punished, and losing control over their lives, is a universal complaint. Common stressors for women include economic hardships, behavioral problems with their children, and the withdrawal of family supports. Indeed, it?s not unusual for her parents to encourage divorce while his parents may blame her for the misdeeds of their son.

It's also not surprising that when husbands are finally released from prison they may be ill-prepared to negotiate with their wives. In fact, most wives had grown more independent and self-confident during their husbands' absence, and some actually perceive his impending freedom as a threat to the stable routines they had worked so hard to secure. One wife said: "I thought I was pretty well prepared for his coming home but I wasn't. There was so much I resented about him and we never got around to talking about it while he was inside. I guess also I did change. I stand up to him now and tell him what I think and he doesn't like that but he's learning. I'm a lot more independent now. I've had to be. He hasn't been there to change the plugs and all. I've had to do it all." (Shaw, 1992, p.70).

Typically, women have a more diminished vision of their marriage than their husbands - who often fantasize the relationship well beyond its strength and viability. It's understandable that when wives deal with them they're much more assertive, particularly about issues surrounding power, money, and parenting. Moreover, wives report feeling unappreciated by their husbands, particularly when they feel obligated to ease his sense of regret and despair. And I saw that a lot in therapy - men seeking sympathy. Families who remain intact during the fathers? imprisonment often feel entitled to compensation and reciprocity from him when he comes home.

Unfortunately children also feel punished and discouraged. They not only suffer emotional, social, and cognitive problems when their fathers are imprisoned, but they're also forced to cope with denial, anger, sadness, and embarrassment. And perhaps this is the crux of family reintegration problems: Everyone has been hurt and diminished, and everyone is seeking relief and compensation for their hardships - including fathers. The key to doing therapy with these families was to respect their shared and individual stories, while focusing on communication and problem-solving skills aimed at restoring and strengthening the whole family system.

Discussion
It wasn't very difficult sorting through the most threatening problems all the couples in my research had to deal with, resolve, and get beyond. It was more precarious, however, keeping them engaged and on task in therapy. It wasn't unusual for a session to be interrupted or abruptly terminated because hostilities ran so high. Some couples were on the brink of divorce at the time of their intake; indeed, 2 of the wives had already filed for divorce. Building empathy and reciprocity were key strategies in finding forgiveness and reconciliation, negotiating rules and roles, and establishing a future-focused orientation. In fact, most of the problems couples presented with were driven by a reluctance to give appreciation, to risk conflict, and implement changes. Men had a tendency to deny or diminish problems, and conflicts were typically recycled by an inability, but not an unwillingness, to negotiate and compromise with fairness.

In fact, all the wives in this study had left their husbands at least once prior to his imprisonment. The expectations they had for him coming home ranged from guardedly optimistic to apprehensively cautious. Indeed, most wives reported that in some ways their lives had become more manageable, structured, and predictable without him around.

Wives assessed their marriages more critically than their husbands, and had greater reservations and conditions for staying in the marriage. It's fair to say that the men in this study were much more eager and motivated to stay married than their wives, and I wanted to take advantage of that.

Indeed, the balance of power between the couples in this research was overwhelmingly lopsided. Wives owned it. They all had a home, a job, the kids, and their freedom. Husbands, on the other hand, were anxious to regain a sense of leadership and control, especially after having been so disempowered and degraded in prison. Unfortunately for them, they were the ones still serving time at a halfway house, after already having served a prison term. They didn't have much leverage to speak of, and they rarely had the power or authority to deal with their wives on equal terms. Most men took advantage of counseling as a way to repent and repair. This theme of repenting and repairing ran strong.

Before a balance of power and role privileges could be restored, fathers first had to do several things: They had to: (1) understand and acknowledge her suffering and losses, and (2) accept complete responsibility for the mess they created, give appreciation, and make amends.

The model that emerged from this study was developed and implemented around these principles. The more completely and genuinely husbands achieved them, the more likely their wives were willing to negotiate, compromise, and forgive.

8-Session Model

Intake:
Before therapy began all couples spent 3 hours completing a family assessment. This gave me a chance to develop rapport, and to understand family of origin & family of procreation histories. During the 2 intake sessions couples were asked to describe how they met, how they treated each other, and what qualities they perceived in one another at the beginning of their relationship. I was trying to determine: (1) how long they had dated before moving in together, (2) whether or not they had children from a previous marriage, (3) the nature of their relationships with their children and former spouses, (4) family members and friends who were supportive vs. those who weren't, (5) how financially stable they were, (6) what their employment or job training prospects were, (7) a very brief history of their legal and/or substance abuse problems, (8) common spiritual beliefs, and (9) how they reconciled previous separations. They also talked about what it was like growing up in their individual families, who had the greatest influence - positively or negatively - in shaping their values, perceptions of fairness, and identity.

The goal of the intake sessions was to: build rapport by staying very conversational (no psychobabble), support their separate hardships, emphasize existing strengths, acknowledge accomplishments, and provide a sense of hope and optimism.


Sessions 1 & 2: Strengths and Weaknesses
All therapy sessions lasted 90 minutes, and the first 2 sessions focused on the couples' strengths and weaknesses. I began every session by reading my casenotes back to them. That way I could use them as a tool for reframing conflict, reinforcing key ideas, quoting clients, and asking follow-up questions to ensure greater accuracy and clarity from the clients' perspective.

Couples were given a copy of the Sharing Strength and Growth Areas worksheet from Dr. Olson's ENRICH model, and asked to choose 3 positives (+) and 3 negatives (-) that most accurately described their relationship (Figure 1).

1. Marital Satisfaction: (+) or (-)
(I'm satisfied with most aspects of our relationship)

2. Personality Issues: (+) or (-)
(I like my partner's personality and habits)

3. Communication: (+) or (-)
(We share feelings with and understand each other)

4. Conflict Resolution: (+) or (-)
(We are able to discuss and resolve differences)

5. Financial Management: (+) or (-)
(We agree on budget and financial matters)

6. Leisure Activities (+) or (-)
(We share similar interests and spend time together)

7. Sexual Expectations & Relationship: (+) or (-)
(We're comfortable with sexual issues & preferences)

8. Children & Parenting: (+) or (-)
(We agree on issues about having & raising children)

9. Family and Friends: (+) or (-)
(We feel good about our relatives and friends)

10. Relationship Roles: (+) or (-)
(We agree on how to share decision-making &
responsibilities)

11. Spiritual Beliefs: (+) or (-)
(We hold similar religious beliefs)
Figure 1


Then they were asked to share their 6 choices with one another so they could discuss the meaning and significance behind each. Most gave very brief or incomplete responses, but they all seemed relieved that the focus had been split between positives and negatives and not simply a journey into every weakness, broken promise, infidelity, and so on.

And while husbands were more contrite and passive than their wives; most women struggled to articulate the positives in their marriage, but had no problems talking about the negatives. It was critical to focus on what they thought as opposed to what they felt because emotions were already too strained. In fact, most of the conflicts were driven by multiple episodes of substance abuse, relapse, and imprisonment. Most wives had lost a good deal of confidence and respect in their husbands; but most husbands had become so distracted by their own hardships and restrictions that they couldn?t really appreciate her losses.

This exercise gave clients a chance to quickly identify, rank, and clarify their strengths and weaknesses, and it revealed how well they interacted with one another.

Session 3: Her Entitlement
Couples talked about "the going home plan" after he completed his halfway house requirement. This was an opportunity to learn more about her expectations or ultimatums. As I've mentioned, most women said their lives had become more stable and predictable without him, and all expressed anger, betrayal, and embarrassment. As such, they were keenly interested in what he was willing to do to repair the marriage, make amends, stay sober, get a job, observe probation requirements, and become a better father. Typically, her agenda for the "going home plan" was much more precise, comprehensive, and conditional than his.

At this point wives were exclusively engaged and the following questions were discussed: I wanted to know:

(1) What he was like when he was sober, and when he wasn't; how did she treat him differently when he was using and when he wasn't?

(2) What were the troubling questions she'd been too afraid or embarrassed to ask him?

(3) What significant promises had he broken; were there family events, celebrations or holidays he ruined?

(4) Who were the "using" friends she felt most threatened by and hostile toward?

(5) How appreciated did she feel for being faithful and loyal to him?

(6) What had her friends and family been telling her to do about him?

(7) How were their children affected by the hardship and separation he imposed on them; had she noticed discipline problems, did they know where dad had been and where he was; what had they been told?

(8) How had single motherhood transformed her life, and who had she most relied upon for support and comfort during his absence?

At the end of the session wives were asked to write a Letter of Entitlement and bring it the following week to read aloud. I wanted them to articulate their hardships, disappointments, lost opportunities, and any feelings of affection or compassion they still held. Most women were eager and enthusiastic about doing this assignment, and their carefully worded letters reflected a good deal of thought, insight, and surprisingly enough, expressions of forgiveness and encouragement.

Session 3 was designed to showcase her attributes, expectations, and examples of her perseverance, resourcefulness, and integrity. Before wives could even think about forgiving and trusting their husbands again, they had to vent and describe their feelings of disappointment and anger. Harsh words and blame were common and even encouraged. It was cathartic for her, but terrible for him.


Session 4: His Apology
This session began with the Letters of Entitlement.

This was also the first time his legal and substance abuse problems were discussed in depth. Husbands were asked:

(1) Who first noticed that using drugs/alcohol had slipped into abusing?

(2) What was the relationship between their criminal behaviors and their alcohol/drug abuse?

(3) How had they manipulated their families?

(4) What had they done to stay sober and out of jail in the past; what had she done to encourage his abstinence; what worked and what hadn't, and why?

(5) What were their relapse triggers - people, places, and things; how did alcohol/drugs "help" them cope with, or escape family commitments?

(6) Who or what inspired them to stay out of prison?

At the end of the session men were asked to write a Letter of Apology to their wives and bring it to read aloud the following week.

The Letter of Entitlement exercise was provocative and revealing. Husbands appeared quietly anxious as their wives read to them, but surprisingly most letters were rather benevolent. One wife wrote, "I'm not sure how to write this letter. I want you to know that I have very positive feelings about our future, and I want the past to stay in the past. I told you that being alone hasn't been that bad, and it hasn't. I'm used to running the household so that hasn't been a problem. Do I feel lonely? Yes, I do. I don't watch my favorite movies because I don't want to see people happy and in love. When it gets to the crying part, I would be crying for me, not the movie. I also told you I didn't want to be pregnant and alone, but I feel like I am. That's why I pushed you to make decisions with me. This time apart has had some positive aspects, though. When you were drinking last summer I felt like I had no pride left. Every day I lost a little bit of myself. There were a lot of times when I thought I couldn't do it anymore, but I felt like I was begging you to stay. When you went to jail I knew you weren't drinking so I knew I would get my old James back. It gave me time to really evaluate my feelings and decide what I wanted from this relationship. I still do worry that you'll start drinking again - and if you do, I can't go through that again. But I still believe in you, and will support you in staying sober. I think we have enough strength to overcome the obstacles ahead, and I think our greatest strength is love - and with that, we can do anything."


Session 5: Three Wishes
Husbands were asked to read their Letters of Apology and wives were asked to respond.

The wives were then asked: "How do you think prison affected your husband? What are the before and after differences you've noticed?"

One wife said: "Before he went to prison he was a lot more considerate, and not so angry...he wasn't getting high on weed and drinking all the time...he went to church then, and he was a lot cleaner, too. After prison he became mean and hard and not respectful...he had a big chip on his shoulder...he stopped caring about his appearance. He said: 'Yeah, I learned to shut down in prison, there was so much anger in there." He had never spoken about his prison experiences with her and also said: "It's very hard getting out of a prison state of mind, but I need to get this out of my system."

Couples also participated in a Speaking & Listening exercise called Three Wishes. It was set up like this: "It can be hard, and risky, to ask our partners to give us what we need, or for them to do some things more consistently. It's a gamble because we don't want to be embarrassed, start an argument, or get shot down. In a lot of ways it's just easier not to ask, but then we risk building up hard feelings."

They were then asked to describe one person who they held in great confidence; the one who had always been available without being too critical, argumentative, or presumptuous. They were asked to talk about and give examples of that unique person in terms of: (1) how important and accepted they made them feel, (2) what they admired about him/her, (3) how honest and reliable they were, and (4) how approachable they were.

After that, I'd give them each a piece of paper and a pen and I'd say: "Take a few minutes to write down 3 things you WISH your partner would do more often or more of. Don't worry if they'll actually grant your 3 wishes, but they might. The thing that matters the most for now is how fearless you are in asking for what you'd like, and how well you thought your partner heard and understood you." The speaker was free to ask for anything, but the listener was very restrained and only allowed to repeat or interpret what they just heard.

Wives clearly felt more entitled to ask for 3 things because they were more deliberate and exacting about what they needed to see him doing more of. But, typically they would make a "wish," fall silent, and wait for his response. For example, one woman said: "I need you to spend more time with me and Katie (daughter) without us begging you," and he responded, "Oh, you want me to spend more time with you and Katie without you begging me." It was important to explore and intervene with questions like this:

(1) "What kind of things would you all be doing as a family? How flexible would that be?"

(2) "Who usually decides what to do, or where to go? Is that working well for you?"

(3) "When was this not such a problem?"

(4) "If begging him to do things with you has not worked, how will you start asking him differently?"

(5) "How will you know when this isn?t an issue for you any longer?"

(6) "What will he be doing differently? What will you be doing?"

(7) "Once you've worked this out, how will you keep it going?"

At the end of the session the men were asked to draft a personal Recovery Plan for staying out of jail and off drugs, and asked to bring it the following week.
Most men became quite emotional as they read their Letters of Apology. This exercise was evocative, and all wives expressed appreciation and gratitude. One husband wrote, "I am writing this letter because of the things I have done, said, and the way I treated you. You have stuck by me through good times and terrible times. Your family has stuck by me also, and I know it will take some time before anyone will begin to trust me again. All I can say is that I will try not to hurt the people that love me anymore. Especially you. I realize I have not been the greatest husband in the past. You truly deserve the best of everything. You especially deserve to be treated much better than I have been able to give you. There are too many incidents and situations in which you deserve an apology, but there are too many to write down. I can only say I'm sorry so many times, but you need to be shown now, and I am ready to do that. I haven't been the man you wanted me to be in the past. I only hope I can become the man you fell in love with. I knew from the first time I saw you that you could be the woman I would love forever. I didn't think you would ever leave me, but when someone treats another person bad enough they will eventually leave. I love you too much and don't want to live my life with any other person. There have been too many times when you needed me and I was not there. Since I've been gone you have been able to hold everything together. You have done a great job with the bills, house, our boy, and even the dogs. You are a wonderful person and deserve to be treated like a princess. I can't say I'm sorry enough. I can only start to show you how much I want to be a part of yours and Charlie's life. I think of you and Charlie every day, and it hurts so much that I can't be with you. I never want to lose you. I love you to the moon, stars, and back again. You are the most beautiful woman I have ever known. Please don't give up on me."

The 3 wishes exercise was hard to maximize because couples gave such brief responses. Wives were more focused and assertive, but husbands were more reserved and introspective. In fact, most men were reluctant to ask their wives for anything. This was a relatively non-threatening way for couples to practice "speaking fearlessly" and "listening precisely" without interrupting, making assumptions, or becoming too defensive. By the 5th session they had grown more aware of their communication deficits and instincts to avoid conflict, but they had also grown more willing to negotiate and compromise.


Session 6: Three Wishes (continued)
Husbands read or discussed their Recovery Plan with their wives.

Next, I referred to the ENRICH pre-test that all couples completed during the intake sessions. All couples cited COMMUNICATIONS as a primary source of conflict. I think they worried that if they listened more and spoke less they'd risk being controlled, unappreciated, or disregarded. So, I referred to their COMMUNICATION responses from the ENRICH Instrument, and discussed areas of Disagreement or Special Focus.

The purpose of this exercise was to help them understand how they contributed to their own problems, and then to accept responsibility when they did. For example, Question #63 states: "At times it's hard for me to ask my partner for what I want." I'd ask the client: "Kathy, you said it was hard for you to ask Frank for what you want. What's getting in the way of asking him; how are you making that harder than it needs to be?" Or Question # 18: "When we're having a problem my partner often refuses to talk about it.?" So, when Chris won't talk to you about a problem, what should you do differently?"

The rest of the session would be spent reviewing their communications responses, and asking follow-up questions like:

(1) "Were there times when you weren?t having so many communication problems?"

(2) "What will you each have to do differently to break your old cycle?"

(3) "At first it may be easy to slip back into your old ways. How will you keep that from happening?"


Session 7: Conflict-Resolution & Financial Management
This session was spent looking at their Conflict Resolution and Financial Management responses, and again, they were asked to discuss how they each contributed to making that worse and what they could do to make it better.

Question #109: "To avoid hurting my partner's feelings during an argument I tend to say nothing." "Susan, how does that work against you, how does your silence contribute to the problem?"


Session 8: Spiritual Beliefs and Parenting
The last session focused on Agreement or Indecision items regarding Spiritual Beliefs and Parenting. Couples frequently cited these two areas as their greatest strengths, and they expressed a keen desire to develop their spiritual beliefs and to expand their circle of friends and social supports through church or community involvement. Couples also viewed spirituality and parenting as pathways toward restoring their marriage. Moreover, they all perceived a need for imparting religious values into their children, and for building their own family traditions around those values.

Wives were often quick to tell their husbands how much their children had missed and needed them, an odd but effective strategy for laying on guilt while building their self-esteem. Indeed, wives were more inclined to give him credit for his past contributions as a father than to remind him of his present failings. It was also an opportunity to ask all fathers this question: "Once you get home how will you reassure your children that you won?t put them through this again? How are you going to make this right with them?"


At the end of the session all couples were post-tested with the ENRICH Instrument; here are the pre- and post-test differences (Figure 2).

Couples' Positive Agreement
ENRICH Category Pre-test / Post-test

Personality Issues	10%	38%
Communication	14%	50%
Conflict Resolution	12%	35%
Financial Management	13%	40%
Leisure Activities	22%	45%
Sexual Relationship	49%	78%
Children & Parenting	33%	59%
Family & Friends x	20%	49%
Role Relationship	56%	60%
Spiritual Beliefs	40%	69%
Couple Closeness	31%	81%
Couple Flexibility	24%	65%

 

Figure 2


Conclusion
Men who have been separated from their families by imprisonment cannot fully recognize or respect the hardships and sacrifices their families made without becoming aware, or having insight into, those struggles. All couples were diligent in their efforts to reconcile problems, and motivated to restore family rules and roles, but facilitating empathy and compromise between them was difficult, repetitive, and strategic. It's doubtful that these couples could have made as much progress on their own because their communication and problem-solving skills had become so truncated by blame, anger, suspicion, and resentment. Indeed, empathy, reciprocity, forgiveness, and trust may never be achieved with individual counseling alone because without familial input, assessment, and participation, communication patterns and conflict resolution skills cannot be challenged, encouraged, or negotiated.

Stan Meloy, Ph D, is director of the ACT (All Children Together) Coalition's Fatherhood Initiative in Thomasville, North Carolina, funded by The Duke Endowment and affiliated with the National Fatherhood Initiative. ACT's mission is to strengthen families by encouraging father/child relationships. ACT has developed multiple programs to support diverse father populations.

References
Brooks, Justin., and Kimberly Bahna. (1994). "It's a Family Affair - The Incarceration of the American Family: Confronting Legal and Social Issues." University of San Francisco Law Review, 28, 271-308.

Carlson, Bonnie E., and Neil Cervera. (1992). Inmates and Their Wives. Greenwood Press, Westport, Connecticut.

Shaw, Roger. (1992). Prisoners' Children, What Are the Issues? Routledge Publishing, New York, New York.